For centuries, gemstones have captivated humanity with their beauty, rarity, and perceived powers. The tradition of associating specific gems with each month of the year, known as birthstones, boasts a rich and complex history, evolving from ancient religious practices to modern-day personalized jewelry. This article explores the origins of the twelve original birthstones, tracing their development from biblical references to their standardization in the 20th century, and examining the beliefs surrounding their significance. The original twelve birthstones, as understood through historical accounts and the eventual standardization, include garnet, amethyst, aquamarine, diamond, emerald, pearl, ruby, peridot, sapphire, opal, topaz, and turquoise. Each stone carries its own unique history and symbolism, reflecting a journey from sacred talismans to cherished personal adornments.
The earliest roots of birthstone lore can be found in biblical texts. The Book of Exodus describes a breastplate worn by Aaron, the first high priest of the Israelites. This breastplate was adorned with twelve different stones, each representing one of the twelve tribes of Israel. These stones were believed to possess great powers, including the ability to reveal fate. While the exact identification of these stones remains debated due to the imprecise mineral naming conventions of the time – descriptions often focused on color rather than chemical composition – the foundational connection between gemstones and specific groups was established. Sources offer conflicting accounts regarding the exact composition of the breastplate, with chrysolite, for example, potentially referring to either topaz or peridot. According to first-century translations, the first row contained carnelian, chrysolite, and beryl. The second row contained jacinth, agate, and amethyst, and the third row contained topaz, onyx, and jasper. The naming of minerals at the time were dependent on color rather than chemical composition, so it is difficult to determine which gems were actually used.
Around the 5th century, a connection emerged between these twelve stones and both the months of the year and the twelve signs of the zodiac. Jewish historian Josephus and early Christian writers began drawing connections between the twelve stones, the zodiac signs, and the calendar months. Their interpretations helped answer the question of the origin of birthstones, shifting the focus from tribal representation to personal astrological and temporal association. This linkage was not confined to the West. In India, the Hindu astrology system developed the Navaratna system—nine sacred gemstones aligned with celestial bodies (such as ruby for the Sun and pearl for the Moon). Rather than following birth months, wearers chose stones based on planetary influence, often to bring balance, luck, or good health. Ancient Persian and Babylonian cultures also connected gems to zodiac signs, believing the stones carried cosmic energy. These ideas spread through trade routes and influenced Greek and Roman thought, shaping the early framework of birthstone meaning in the West.
By the Middle Ages, Europeans began wearing specific stones as protective charms. Garnet (now associated with January) was believed to protect against poisoning, while aquamarine (March) was thought to keep sailors safe at sea. Gems were sometimes inscribed with symbols or scripture, especially by clergy and nobility, blurring the line between ornament and spiritual armor. This period marked a time when birthstones were deeply intertwined with superstition and practical belief in their protective or healing properties.
The transition from mystical talismans to popular jewelry pieces gained momentum during the Victorian Era. Birthstones became popular as sentimental gifts, especially in mourning rings and lockets. Today, many of these pieces are considered heirlooms and can be dated using vintage ring identification guides. The Art Nouveau and Art Deco periods further evolved the tradition. Designers incorporated birthstones into stylish, wearable art, shifting the focus from superstition to aesthetics. This period marked a turning point when birthstones became more about individuality than ritual. That changed with advancements in mining, gem-cutting, and mass production. These innovations made birthstone jewelry available to a broader audience.
A significant milestone in the history of birthstones was the standardization of the list. In 1912, the National Association of Jewellers (now the Jewellers of America) created a standardized list of birthstones. This marked the first attempt to create a definitive and widely accepted list of birthstones. Even after this standardization, variations persist, with some months having multiple accepted birthstones, reflecting both traditional and modern preferences. The modern list, established in 1912, is widely recognized and followed today, providing a simple and consistent guide for those interested in the symbolic and healing properties of their birthstones. On the other hand, ancient birthstone lists, such as those originating from the Hebrew, Roman, or Arabic traditions, provide a deeper historical context and connection to the cultural practices of the past. These lists can offer alternative stones for each birth month, providing an opportunity for individuals to explore and discover the stone that resonates most with their personal beliefs and preferences.
As modern gemology emerged, many traditional healing claims were debunked. Yet, the emotional appeal of birthstones endured. People kept associating gems with identity, memory, and self-expression. The Jewelers of America have updated birthstone lists over time, for example, adding tanzanite for December in 2002, reflecting cultural shifts over esoteric traditions. Originally, each month had a single assigned gem, but now many months have multiple stones to accommodate different tastes and availability.
January: Garnet
Garnet, the birthstone for January, derives its name from the Latin word granatum, meaning pomegranate, due to the resemblance of its deep red color to the fruit’s seeds. Alternatively, the name may originate from the Latin granum, meaning grain, referencing a red dye. While the most iconic color is deep red, garnets actually occur in a wide range of colors, excluding blue. The gemstone is not a single mineral but a group of silicate minerals that share a similar crystal structure. Common varieties include almandine (pyrope-almandine), which is the most common red garnet, and spessartine (orange to yellowish-orange), grossular (various colors including green, yellow, and brown), andradite (green to black), and uvarovite (emerald green). The chemical composition varies by species, but all are silicates.
Garnets have been valued for thousands of years. They were used in jewelry by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. In the Middle Ages, garnets were believed to protect against poisoning and nightmares. They were also used as a protective talisman for travelers. Today, garnets are mined in various locations, including India, Sri Lanka, Brazil, and parts of Africa. The gem has a Mohs hardness of 6.5 to 7.5, making it durable enough for everyday wear, though it can be prone to cracking if subjected to sharp blows due to its lack of cleavage but conchoidal fracture.
February: Amethyst
Amethyst, associated with February, has a rich etymology tracing back through French, Latin, and Greek origins. The name comes from the Greek word amethystos, meaning "not intoxicated," as the ancient Greeks believed the stone could protect against drunkenness. Amethyst is a variety of quartz, with a chemical composition of silicon dioxide (SiO₂). Its purple color is due to iron impurities and natural irradiation. The color can range from pale lilac to deep violet, with the most valued hues being a rich, saturated purple with flashes of red.
Historically, amethyst was considered a gem of royalty and spirituality. It was used in the breastplate of the Jewish high priest and was a favorite stone of Catherine the Great. In the Middle Ages, it was believed to have healing properties, including the ability to calm the mind and prevent baldness. Amethyst is found in many parts of the world, with significant deposits in Brazil, Uruguay, Zambia, and Madagascar. It has a Mohs hardness of 7, making it relatively durable, though it can fade in prolonged sunlight. It is also sensitive to heat, which can alter its color.
March: Aquamarine
March is represented by aquamarine and, traditionally, bloodstone. Aquamarine’s name derives from the Latin for "sea water," reflecting its blue to blue-green color. It is a variety of beryl, with a chemical composition of Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆. The color comes from trace amounts of iron. The most prized aquamarine is a deep blue, reminiscent of the ocean, though lighter shades are also popular.
Aquamarine has been associated with sailors, who believed it offered protection against storms and drowning. It was also thought to have cooling properties and was used in folk medicine. Major sources of aquamarine include Brazil, Nigeria, Madagascar, Pakistan, and Mozambique. It has a Mohs hardness of 7.5 to 8, making it an excellent choice for jewelry. It is relatively inclusion-free, and larger stones are more common than with many other gems.
April: Diamond
April’s birthstone is the diamond, renowned for its exceptional hardness and brilliance. The word "diamond" comes from the Greek adamas, meaning "invincible," a testament to its unmatched durability. Diamond is pure carbon arranged in a cubic crystal structure. Its brilliance and fire are due to its high refractive index and dispersion.
Diamonds have a long history of symbolizing love, power, and eternity. They were first mined in India over 2,500 years ago and were later found in Brazil and South Africa. The modern diamond industry was shaped by the discovery of large deposits in South Africa in the late 19th century. Diamonds are graded based on the Four Cs: cut, color, clarity, and carat weight. They have a Mohs hardness of 10, the highest possible, making them extremely resistant to scratching. However, they can be brittle and may cleave if struck with force along certain planes. Major sources today include Russia, Botswana, Canada, and Australia.
May: Emerald
May is associated with the vibrant green emerald. The name likely comes from the Greek word smaragdos, meaning "green gem." Emerald is a variety of beryl, like aquamarine, with a chemical composition of Be₃Al₂(SiO₃)₆. Its green color is due to trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. The most valued emeralds have a deep, vivid green with a slight bluish or yellowish tint, known as "jardin" (French for garden) due to the inclusions that are often present.
Emeralds have been prized since ancient times. The Egyptians mined them as early as 1500 BCE. Cleopatra was famously fond of emeralds. They were also valued by the Incas and Aztecs. In the Middle Ages, emeralds were believed to have healing properties, particularly for the eyes. Major sources of emerald include Colombia, Zambia, Brazil, and Zimbabwe. Emeralds have a Mohs hardness of 7.5 to 8, but they are brittle and prone to chipping due to their inclusions. They require careful handling and cleaning.
June: Pearl and Moonstone
June boasts both pearl and moonstone as birthstones, reflecting their historical significance and aesthetic appeal. Pearls are unique among gems as they are organic, formed within the soft tissue of living mollusks. Their composition is primarily calcium carbonate (aragonite) and conchiolin. They come in a range of colors, including white, cream, pink, and black.
Pearls have been valued since antiquity. They were harvested in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. In ancient Rome, pearls were a symbol of wealth and status. They are associated with purity and innocence. Pearls are relatively soft, with a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 4.5, making them susceptible to scratching and damage. They are sensitive to acids, chemicals, and perspiration. Major sources today include cultured pearl farms in Japan, China, Australia, and French Polynesia.
Moonstone is a variety of feldspar, with a chemical composition of (K,Na)AlSi₃O₈. It exhibits a unique optical phenomenon called adularescence, a shimmering, moonlight-like glow. Moonstone is typically colorless or white with a blue sheen, but it can also be found in peach, gray, or green hues. It has been associated with the moon and believed to have mystical properties, such as enhancing intuition and balancing emotions. Moonstone has a Mohs hardness of 6 to 6.5, making it moderately durable. It is found in Sri Lanka, India, and Madagascar.
July: Ruby
July is represented by the fiery ruby. The name "ruby" comes from the Latin rubeus, meaning red. Ruby is a variety of the mineral corundum, with a chemical composition of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), and its red color is due to chromium impurities. The most prized rubies have a deep, vivid red with a slight bluish undertone, often described as "pigeon's blood."
Rubies have been valued for millennia. They were mined in Myanmar (Burma) as early as 600 CE and have been a symbol of power and passion. In the Middle Ages, rubies were believed to protect against evil and bring good fortune. They were also thought to have healing properties for blood-related ailments. Major sources of ruby include Myanmar, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Thailand. Ruby has a Mohs hardness of 9, making it extremely durable, second only to diamond. However, like sapphire, it can be brittle and may cleave if struck.
August: Peridot (and Sardonyx, Spinel)
August traditionally featured sardonyx, but modern lists also include peridot and spinel. Peridot, the primary modern birthstone for August, is a variety of olivine, with a chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄. Its color ranges from light yellow-green to deep olive green, due to iron content. Peridot is one of the few gems that occur in only one color, though the shade can vary.
Peridot has a history dating back to ancient Egypt, where it was known as the "gem of the sun." It was mined on the island of Zabargad (now St. John's Island) in the Red Sea. The ancient Egyptians believed peridot had protective powers and could ward off evil spirits. It is also found in Pakistan, China, and the United States (Arizona). Peridot has a Mohs hardness of 6.5 to 7, making it suitable for jewelry but requiring care to avoid scratches.
Sardonyx is a banded variety of onyx, composed of silica (quartz). It features alternating layers of sard (reddish-brown) and onyx (black or white). Historically, it was used for cameos and intaglios. Spinel, another alternative for August, is a magnesium aluminum oxide (MgAl₂O₄) and comes in a wide range of colors, including red, blue, and pink. The famous "Black Prince's Ruby" in the British Imperial State Crown is actually a red spinel. Spinels have a Mohs hardness of 8, making them durable.
September: Sapphire
September’s birthstone is the sapphire, prized for its deep blue hue. The name sapphire comes from the Latin sapphirus, derived from the Greek sappheiros, meaning blue. Sapphire is a variety of corundum (aluminum oxide, Al₂O₃), with its blue color due to iron and titanium impurities. While blue is the most famous, sapphires can also be found in pink, yellow, green, and colorless varieties (except red, which is ruby).
Sapphires have been associated with royalty, wisdom, and divine favor. They were used in the breastplate of the high priest and were believed to protect against envy and harm. In the Middle Ages, sapphires were used in religious jewelry and were thought to have healing properties for eye diseases. Major sources of sapphire include Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Madagascar, and Australia. Sapphires have a Mohs hardness of 9, making them extremely durable and suitable for all types of jewelry.
October: Opal
October’s birthstone is opal, known for its unique play of color. Opal is a hydrated silica (SiO₂·nH₂O) with a water content that can vary from 3% to 21%. Its play of color is caused by the diffraction of light through microscopic silica spheres. Opals can be precious (with play of color) or common (without). Colors can range from white to black, with flashes of red, green, blue, and yellow.
Opal has a history of both admiration and superstition. It was considered a stone of good fortune in ancient Rome and was believed to have the properties of all colored stones. However, in the 19th century, it gained a reputation for being unlucky, largely due to Sir Walter Scott's novel Anne of Geierstein. Opals are found mainly in Australia, which produces over 90% of the world's supply, as well as Ethiopia and Mexico. Opal has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 to 6.5, making it relatively soft and prone to cracking due to its water content. It requires careful handling and should not be exposed to extreme heat or dry conditions.
November: Topaz and Citrine
November is associated with topaz and citrine. Topaz, the traditional birthstone, is a silicate mineral with the formula Al₂SiO₄(F,OH)₂. It comes in a variety of colors, including yellow, brown, blue, pink, and colorless. The most valued topaz is the imperial topaz, which is a rich orange-pink. Topaz has a Mohs hardness of 8, making it very durable.
Topaz has been believed to have cooling properties and was used in ancient times to treat fever and insomnia. It was also thought to protect against sudden death. Major sources include Brazil, Pakistan, and Russia.
Citrine is a variety of quartz (silicon dioxide, SiO₂) with a yellow to orange color due to iron impurities. It is sometimes called "the merchant's stone" and is believed to bring prosperity and success. Citrine has a Mohs hardness of 7, making it durable. It is found in Brazil, Uruguay, and Zambia.
December: Turquoise and Tanzanite
December’s traditional birthstone is turquoise, with the modern addition of tanzanite. Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral, a hydrated phosphate of copper and aluminum (CuAl₆(PO₄)₄(OH)₈·4H₂O). Its color is due to copper (blue) and iron (green). Turquoise has been prized for thousands of years, especially by ancient Egyptians, Persians, and Native Americans. It was believed to have protective properties and to bring good health and fortune. Turquoise is found in Iran, the southwestern United States, China, and other regions. It has a Mohs hardness of 5 to 6, making it relatively soft and porous, requiring care to avoid chemicals and impacts.
Tanzanite is a variety of zoisite, with a chemical composition of Ca₂Al₃(SiO₄)₃(OH). It is known for its vivid blue-to-violet color, which is caused by vanadium. It was discovered in Tanzania in the 1960s and was added to the modern birthstone list in 2002. Tanzanite has a Mohs hardness of 6.5 to 7, making it moderately durable but susceptible to chipping. It is found only in a small area near Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
Care and Cleaning
Proper care is essential to maintain the beauty and longevity of birthstones. The general rule is to clean gems with warm water, mild soap, and a soft brush. Avoid harsh chemicals, ultrasonic cleaners (for stones with inclusions or fractures), and extreme heat or sudden temperature changes. Always remove jewelry before engaging in activities that could cause impact or exposure to chemicals.
- Diamond, Sapphire, Ruby: These can be cleaned with most methods, but avoid harsh chemicals.
- Emerald: Due to inclusions, avoid ultrasonic cleaners and extreme heat. Clean gently with a soft cloth.
- Opal: Avoid water immersion and extreme temperature changes. Clean with a damp cloth.
- Pearl: Avoid chemicals, perfumes, and perspiration. Wipe with a soft, dry cloth after wearing.
- Turquoise: Avoid chemicals, cosmetics, and prolonged water exposure. Clean with a soft, dry cloth.
- Amethyst: Avoid prolonged sunlight, which can cause fading. Clean with mild soap and water.
- Garnet: Avoid sharp blows. Clean with mild soap and water.
- Aquamarine, Topaz, Peridot, Moonstone, Citrine, Tanzanite: Generally durable but avoid ultrasonic cleaners and harsh chemicals. Clean with mild soap and water.
Conclusion
The journey of the twelve original birthstones from ancient sacred objects to modern symbols of personal identity is a testament to their enduring appeal. Each stone carries a unique blend of geological formation, historical significance, and cultural lore. From the protective talismans of the Middle Ages to the sentimental gifts of the Victorian Era, birthstones have evolved while retaining their core symbolism. The standardization in 1912 provided a framework, but the tradition continues to adapt, with new stones like tanzanite being added to reflect contemporary tastes and discoveries. Understanding the history, properties, and care of these gems allows enthusiasts, collectors, and wearers to appreciate them on a deeper level, connecting with a tradition that spans millennia.